Source: K. Duewell, "Jewish Cultural Centres in Nazi Germany, Expectations and Accomplishments," in: J. Reinharz & W. Schatzberg (eds.) , The Jewish Response to German Culture, From the Enlightenment to the Second World War (Hanover & London, 1985), pp. 294 - 316.
The theatre, however, remained the chief work of the Kulturbund Rhein-Ruhr . In regard to the future shaping of its program, the artistic director Gerhard Walter-Rosenbaum wrote in the summer of 1934:
The process of assimilation during the last decade destroyed the old community of German Jews. The only acknowledged tie remained the religious faith, and in view of a general turning away from religion, it was no longer strong enough to mould Jewish community life. But the pressure of recent events has forced a new common cause into being. To transform this cause into a real community by creating a mental bond is a vital task for German Jewry. The principle task of the Kulturbund theatre is to participate in the renewal of the cultural life of German Jews by depicting Jewish destinies and Jewish people and by disseminating the works of Jewish poets and writers.
The new Jewish community in Germany cannot and must not tear itself away from the German culture to which all are tied by language and education and most of us also by history and Heimatliebe. Another and equally important task of the Kulturbund theatre is to maintain and strengthen links with German culture.
By putting on the stage artistically important dramatic entertainment, the theatre of the Kulturbund should free its audiences from their everyday sorrows and thereby fulfil its third task' 21 .
Quite rightly Walter-Rosenbaum pointed again and again to the psychological difficulties of the Jewish theatre work: the everyday life of the German Jews was oppressed by such a heavy psychological burden and by such severe troubles which "for many reasons could not be represented on the stage" that a return to "the individualistic dramas of the last years" would be unthinkable:
Nothing would be more senseless than to show problems that, by reason of the personal oppression of the spectators, have become inconsequential. It may be remarked, moreover, that in the new Germany there is no longer room for the problematic plays of yesterday. The new task of creating works for the cultural centres, which fortunately has already started, will not be in full operation for some time' 22 .
From this it is clear that the Kulturbund Rhein-Ruhr sought suitable Jewish plays but did not renounce links with general German theatrical tradition. The same is clear also from Walter-Rosenbaum's final appeal: The Kulturbund theater has set high aims for the coming months. It will reach these goals if every Jew stands by the Kulturbund , showing thereby that he is willing to work with heart and soul for the cultural support and strengthening of German Jewry.' (23) But it was precisely this intention of retaining contact with the German theatrical tradition that was opposed by Nazi authorities. The performances were under the permanent control of Gestapo officials - the Herren mit der Aktentasche as Herbert Freeden has called them. The Mitteilungsblaetter could not report on this matter explicitly, lest it run the risk of itself being prohibited.
In the fall of 1934 Dr. Heinrich Levinger, a man experienced in theatrical profession, took over the management of the Kulturbund Rhein-Ruhr in Cologne. In October he wrote in the Mitteilungsblaetter about his plans and hopes: We want to deal with our task deliberately as Jews to whom their Jewishness is not only an innate fact but also the means of cultivating a proud tradition. But we want to deal with it also as Jewish citizens of Germany and the world, Jews who do not want to lose touch with the cultural heritage that has become a vital possession for them.' 24 Practical and social aims had to be combined with cultural and artistic objectives. So the theatre performed during the summer as well as the regular season, and the management turned directly to the audience of the Kulturbund with urgent appeals:
Remain members of the Kulturbund !! It's your work created by yourselves at a time of greatest crisis. Help to safeguard its existence, to complete its structure, because our artistic performances must be enhanced, more and more unemployed artists must earn a living in it; the youth shall be drawn in. It is necessary to achieve these objectives! Bear in mind that it was always a most dignified Jewish duty to help creative people and to support the arts' 25 .
The mostly assimilated Jews in the Rhineland and Westfalia found it very difficult, however, to follow Hans Hinkel's insistent demands that the Kulturbund stick to Jewish themes and authors. As early as June 1934 the Kulturbund Rhein-Ruhr had to organise a competition in order to find new plays with specifically Jewish contents. Within three months fifty plays were submitted for the judges to examine. This was no doubt a sign of the Kulturbund Rhein-Ruhr's vitality, but it was also a sure sign that Jews well understood how necessary it was for them to shed light on the central question of their cultural task at this time.
On this matter the Mitteilungsblaetter in the fall of 1934 published a series of essays on "Das juedische Element in der Kulturbundarbeit." Rabbi Hugo Hahn from Essen stated his opinion that as long as, for cultural or technical reasons, Jews had not yet succeeded in articulating the Jewish existence as an expression of the general human situation, they could make this an objective of their artistic work: It could also be a legitimate task of a Jewish Kulturbund to defend the Jews' own cause by pleading the general one: to let the cultural creations of the world flow through a Jewish heart, through a Jewish temperament. By this the Jewish cause would be rendered a good service in these times.' 26
This critical analysis of the Jewish point of view was continued in the successive numbers of the Mitteilungsblaetter. Kurt Alexander of Krefeld, a member of the managing committee of the Centralverein deutscher Staatsbuerger juedischen Glaubens (CV) and of the board of the Kulturbund Rhein-Ruhr , expressed his opinion in the November issue:
At the founding of the Kulturbund it was clear to me that without establishing a theatre it would not be of long duration. Concerts and lectures capture the attention of only a small circle of people. But the theatre exists for all . . . The theatre must under no circumstances fail to take an active part in the cultural work of our German Heimat; next to this it has to cultivate the sublime and imperishable heritage of the Jewish cultural community. We are on the right road. Let us proceed onward' 27 .
So here again was mention of the double task: to intensify the consciousness of the Jewish existence as well as to pay regard to the historical fact that Jewish culture had struck roots in German language and civilisation. In spite of Nazi policies, this approach continued to be characteristic of the Jews in the West of Germany.
In December 1934 Dr. Auerbach, rabbi of the district of Recklinghausen, pointed to the special service the Kulturbund would render to the small communities:
The National Revolution 28 resulted in the exclusion of Jews from almost all non-Jewish associations and forced them, especially the Jews in the countryside and in the small communities, into total mental, social, and psychological isolation. At that point the Kulturbund re-established ties. Of course we would not fail to recognise that its founding originated to a great extent in philanthropic motives, since Jewish artists, expelled and therefore suffering, could earn a living only through this organisation. But more important than the ridiculously small amount of money that we pay to the Kulturbund as our monthly dues, are the great ideals and values that the Kulturbund presents to us, and this especially again to the small communities . . . By the Kulturbund's not restricting its performances to the large communities but coming also to the medium-sized and small communities, there serving in addition the surrounding tiny communities, we all are united by a great bond . . . It is precisely the individual Jew in the small communities who feels in a double way the heavy economic and psychological struggle for existence and who is dependent on the work of the Kulturbund and owes to it a debt of gratitude for its efforts' 29 .
The Kulturbund Rhein-Ruhr , unlike the Kulturbund in Berlin, made a specific effort to reach out into the rural communities and play a role in the cultural consolidation of Jews in small towns. Of course there were also risks in this-the risks incurred by Jews staying too long in these communities - but they were only realised later . In 1934-35 the work of the Kulturbund was primarily seen as helpful. Nevertheless it was precisely in these small and medium-sized communities that as early as 1935 it became increasingly difficult for the Kulturbund even to find halls for performances.
In spite of all external hardships, the discussion about Jewish values continued, and it also determined the decision of the jury in March 1935 on the fifty plays on Jewish themes that had been submitted. What had been called for was "the best play, but particularly with a Jewish content." But the jury could not agree on the awarding of a first prize, which might seem surprising in view of the large number of works submitted. The judges gave their reasons as follows:
The Kulturbund had hoped that the competition would provide it with mature dramatic works which, when performed on the stage, would transmit Jewish values and a Jewish consciousness to a broad section of the public. But in addition it was also hoped that the competition would advance and foster the work of Jewish dramatists. Unfortunately these hopes have been realised to only a small extent. Almost all the plays submitted were imitative of other styles, and there was no work suitable for performance that satisfied the particular demands of the Kulturbund theatre' 30 .
So only a second prize was awarded, to the play Channa, by Martha Wertheimer of Frankfurt am Main, which was performed the following fall. Seven more plays received commendations. Among them was Benjamin o'er die Ueberwindung by Heinrich Infeld from Tel Aviv, which in the opinion of the jury was the only play in the competition to achieve a form appropriate to the outlook of our times.' It depicted the career of a chaluz 31 .
The Kulturbund Rhein-Ruhr's intensive efforts on behalf of the Jewish theatre redounded to its own benefit when on April 27-28, 1935 (no doubt also as a result of Nazi pressure), thirty-six regional and local Jewish cultural centres joined together in Berlin to form the Reichsverband der juedischen Kulturbuende in Deutschland . Later a few additional groups joined them. Singer of Berlin was elected chairman of a small steering committee, and Levinger, the head of the Kulturbund Rhein-Ruhr , was elected senior deputy chairman. Since the purpose of this umbrella organisation was to facilitate the exchange of events among the various cultural centres, the Mitteilungsblaetter of the Kulturbund Rhein-Ruhr thought it had good potential: Within this framework, our Kulturbund theatre, as the only Jewish travelling theatre company, should find a larger sphere of activity opened up to it.' It concluded its report about the confederation of Jewish cultural centres by asserting: Every individual must be fully aware what an important brick his membership represents in the overall structure of Jewish cultural work in Germany! Then no one will lightly neglect something that is among the most important obligations of Jews in Germany: to extend on a cultural level the Jewish Lebensraum in Germany and to help provide work for Jewish artists!' 32
Through the confederation of Jewish cultural centres in the Reichsverband der juedischen Kulturbuende in Deutschland , every member of an individual Kulturbund was automatically a member of the Reichsverband . In return for a small addition to their monthly dues, individual members thereby had the right to attend the events of other local and regional centres. In addition all the centres had improved opportunities for co-operation. But these advantages were offset by the possibility of tighter controls by Staatskommissar Hinkel and the Gestapo. This opportunity was not fully exploited by the Nazi regime during 1935-36, since the Hitler government temporarily held back from anti-Semitic measures in view of the approaching Olympic Games, but the Reichsverband was an avenue for facilitating more restrictive policies at a later time.
Meanwhile the cultural and social work of the Jewish cultural centres continued undismayed. Friedrich Brodnitz, the former chairman of the CV and now a committee member of the Reichsvertretung der deutschen Juden , encouraged the centres' activities in a lecture in Cologne in November 1935: Your recent confederation has formed the basis for united, effective work. Now it is a matter of giving life to the organisational framework. From being individual audience groups, you must become real centres of strength in the cultural life of the German Jews.' Brodnitz thought that, just as new paths were being developed in all areas of German-Jewish community life, artistic work must also be built anew "right down to the smallest details." Each of the many questions that arose in this regard would have to be examined afresh:
The meaning of artistic creation and enjoyment for a new age and a new generation, the relationship of specifically Jewish art to the art of Germany and to the art of the whole world, the tasks of the new individual areas in the overall plan for a new cultural life, all these problems must be thought out and shaped anew from the ground up. It must be our leading principle that there cannot be a place in our Jewish cultural centres for art that no longer has anything essential to say to the people of our time . . . The particular cultural needs of German Jews of today, recognised and formulated in an un-dogmatic way independent of party views, must give our work its stamp.'
In Brodnitz's opinion the Jewish cultural centres would have to "draw all sectors of German Jewry around themselves" and prove that they were determined to be the cradle of an art that would "stand up to the serious situation of our days" and to demonstrate that they were not just "emergency shelters" but valid forms of cultural life 33 . The difficulty lay in turning theory into practice, and that could be done only by the centres themselves.
In January 1936 Singer spoke in Cologne, Dortmund, Essen, and Krefeld on "The Foundation and Extension of Jewish Cultural Work in Germany." 34 But already the future of programs for extending cultural work was uncertain. In March 1936 Dr. Paul Moses, senior chairman of the Jewish Kulturbund Rhein-Ruhr , left Germany; the second wave of emigrations sinc1933 was on its way. Although the membership of the Kulturbund Rhein-Ruhr had now declined from its high of five thousand, its work continued. But major theatrical performances gradually gave way to poetry evenings and Kleinkunst , while art exhibitions and solo musical recitals increased in number. At the exhibition of the Jewish cultural centres in Berlin in May 1936, at which Jewish artists from all over the country were represented, Rheinish painters such as Flora Joehlinger, Lisel Wetzlar, Lotte Prechner, Hans Eltzbacher, and Otto Schloss had considerable success.
The Kulturbund Rhein-Ruhr found it increasingly difficult to stick to the original performance schedules of its theatre 35 , as it had serious problems maintaining a large staff. Nevertheless the company managed to perform Somerset Maugham's Sacred Flame in May 1936 and Rudolf Kurtz's comedy Hut ab vor Onkel Eddie in June. For November 1936 Marcel Pagnol's comedy Zum goldenen Asker was scheduled, and for 1937 two premieres - Gerhard Hirschfeld's Der Pojaz and Willi Buschhoff's Hachscharah - and three additional plays - George Bernard Shaw's Candied or Ferenc Molnar's Die grosse Liebe, (Borg Dueren's Der Staerkere, and The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde. It proved impossible to perform the plays by Buschhoff and Dueren. Other performances included the Hungarian comedy Jean by Ladislaus Bus-Fekete and The Man Who Changed His Name by Edgar Wallace.
From 1937 onwards, light plays and comedies came to dominate the Kulturbund Rhein-Ruhr's theatre program. Among these were Bob macht sich gesund by Axel Ivers, Achtung, frisch gestrichen! by Rend Fauchois, Molnar's comedy Delila, evenings of light entertainment with the irrepressible Max Ehrlich, Offenbach evenings, and the like. The audience needed diversion and temporary respite from cares in a time of increasing psychological oppression, and the management no doubt conceded to the wishes of the public on whom the continued existence of the theatre so heavily depended. In view of this, the premiere in Cologne of Franz Werfel's most recent play, In einer Nacht, as late as January 1938 must be regarded as a considerable achievement.
References:
21.Gerhard Walter-Rosenbaum, 'Aufgaben der Kulturbuende Rhein-Ruhr, ein Wort zur kuenftigen Spielplangestaltung,' ibid., p. 3.
22.Ibid., p. 4.
23.Ibid.
24.Heinrich Levinger, 'Unser zweites Arbeitsjahr beginnt! Plaene und Hoffnungen,' ibid., October 1934, p. 3.
25.'Bleibe Mitglied des Kulturbundes!' ibid., June 1934, p. 4.
26.Hugo Hahn, 'Dajuedische Element in der Kulturbundarbeit,' ibid., October 1934, p. 6.
27.Kurt Alexander, 'Kulturbund-TheaterΓÇôwarum und wie,' ibid., November 1934, p. 6.
28.The term nationale Revolution was like Machtergreifung , a catch phrase of Nazi propaganda and had been first used by the conservative Right. Its use at this time in the Mitteilungsblaetter must be seen in part as a tactical concession to Nazi censorship.
29.Dr. Auerbach, 'Was bedeutet der Kulturbund fuer die kleinen Gemeinden?' Mitteilungsblaetter , December 1934, p. 6.
30.Walter-Rosenbaum, 'Unser Preisausschreiben! Die Entscheidung des Preisgerichts,' ibid., March 1935, p. 7.
31.Ibid. In addition, the area from which this competition attracted entries shows the considerable circulation of the Mitteilungsblaetter of the Juedischer Kulturbund Rhein-Ruhr, for none of the other six authors who received recommendations lived in the Rhineland or Westphalia either. They were Fritz Rosenthal of Munich ( Das Messiasspiel ); Maurice Ruebner ( Pax eterna ) and Oswald Pander ( Man tuermt ), both of Hamburg; Herbert Schoenlank of Amsterdam ( Kalenner faehrt Auto ); Martin Mansbacher of Luebeck ( Chanukkafestspiel ); and Sylvia Cohn-Oberbrunner of Offenburg/Baden ( Esther ).
32.'Zusammenschluss der juedischen Kulturbuende Deutschlands,' Mitteilungsblaetter , June 1935, p. 4. The term Lebensraum , so overused by the Nazis, turns up here most likely, again, as a tactical concession to Nazi censorship.
33.Friedrich Bodnitz, 'Kultubuende und juedische OEffentlichkeit,' ibid., November 1935, p. 3.
34.Kurt Singer, 'Die Grundlage und Erweiterung juedischer Kulturarbeit in Deutschland,' ibid., January 1936, p. 9.
35.For the original performance schedule, see n. 11, above.
